Weight and Balance - EFFECTS OF WEIGHT

Any item aboard the airplane that increases the total weight is undesirable as far as performance is concerned.

Manufacturers attempt to make the airplane as light as possible without sacrificing strength or safety.

The pilot of an airplane should always be aware of the consequences of overloading. An overloaded airplane may not be able to leave the ground, or if it does become airborne, it may exhibit unexpected and unusually poor flight characteristics. If an airplane is not properly loaded, the initial indication of poor performance usually takes place during takeoff.

Excessive weight reduces the flight performance of an airplane in almost every respect. The most important performance deficiencies of the overloaded airplane are:

• Higher takeoff speed.
• Longer takeoff run.
• Reduced rate and angle of climb.
• Lower maximum altitude.
• Shorter range.
• Reduced cruising speed.
• Reduced maneuverability.
• Higher stalling speed.
• Higher approach and landing speed.
• Longer landing roll.
• Excessive weight on the nosewheel or tailwheel.

The pilot must be knowledgeable in the effect of weight on the performance of the particular airplane being flown. Preflight planning should include a check of performance charts to determine if the airplane's weight may contribute to hazardous flight operations.

Excessive weight in itself reduces the safety margins available to the pilot, and becomes even more hazardous when other performance-reducing factors are combined with overweight. The pilot must also consider the consequences of an overweight airplane if an emergency condition arises. If an engine fails on takeoff or airframe ice forms at low altitude, it is usually too late to reduce the airplane's weight to keep it in the air.

Weight and Balance - WEIGHT CONTROL

Compliance with the weight and balance limits of any airplane is critical to flight safety. Operating an airplane above the maximum weight limitation compromises the structural integrity of the airplane and adversely affects its performance. Operation with the center of gravity (CG) outside the approved limits may result in control difficulty.

WEIGHT CONTROL
Weight is the force with which gravity attracts a body toward the center of the earth. It is a product of the mass of a body and the acceleration acting on the body.

Weight is a major factor in airplane construction and operation, and demands respect from all pilots.

The force of gravity continually attempts to pull the airplane down toward earth. The force of lift is the only force that counteracts weight and sustains the airplane in flight. However, the airfoil design, angle of attack, airspeed, and air density limit the amount of lift produced by an airfoil. Therefore, to assure that the lift generated is sufficient to counteract weight, loading the airplane beyond the manufacturer's recommended weight must be avoided. If the weight is greater than the lift generated, the airplane may be incapable of flight.

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE - AIRCRAFT OWNER/OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES

The registered owner/operator of an aircraft is responsible for certain items such as:

• Having a current Airworthiness Certificate and a Certificate of Aircraft Registration in the aircraft.
• Maintaining the aircraft in an airworthy condition, including compliance with all applicable Airworthiness Directives.
• Assuring that maintenance is properly recorded.
• Keeping abreast of current regulations concerning the operation and maintenance of the aircraft.
• Notifying the FAA Civil Aviation Registry immediately of any change of permanent mailing
• address, or of the sale or export of the aircraft, or of the loss of the eligibility to register an aircraft. (Refer to 14 CFR part 47, section 47.41.)
• Having a current FCC radio station license if equipped with radios, including emergency locator transmitter (ELT), if operated outside of the United States.

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE - AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES

A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same design. The unsafe condition may exist because of a design defect, maintenance, or other causes. 14 CFR part 39, Airworthiness Directives (ADs), defines the authority and responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary corrective action. ADs are the means used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify the conditions under which the product may continue to be operated.
ADs may be divided into two categories:

1. those of an emergency nature requiring immediate compliance prior to further flight, and
2. those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance within a specified period of time.

Airworthiness Directives are regulatory and shall be complied with unless a specific exemption is granted.

It is the aircraft owner or operator's responsibility to ensure compliance with all pertinent ADs. This includes those ADs that require recurrent or continuing action. For example, an AD may require a repetitive inspection each 50 hours of operation, meaning the particular inspection shall be accomplished and recorded every 50 hours of time in service.

Owners/operators are reminded there is no provision to overfly the maximum hour requirement of an AD unless it is specifically written into the AD. To help determine if an AD applies to an amateur-built aircraft, contact the local FSDO.

14 CFR part 91, section 91.417 requires a record to be maintained that shows the current status of applicable ADs, including the method of compliance; the AD number and revision date, if recurring; the time and date when due again; the signature; kind of certificate; and certificate number of the repair station or mechanic who performed the work. For ready reference, many aircraft owners have a chronological listing of the pertinent ADs in the back of their aircraft, engine, and propeller maintenance records.

All Airworthiness Directives and the AD Biweekly are free on the Internet at www.airweb.faa.gov/rgl Paper copies of the Summary of Airworthiness Directives and the AD Biweekly may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents. The Summary contains all the valid ADs previously published and is divided into two areas. The small aircraft and rotorcraft books contain all ADs applicable to small aircraft (12,500 pounds or less maximum certificate takeoff weight) and ADs applicable to all helicopters. The large aircraft books contain all ADs applicable to large aircraft.

For further information on how to order ADs and the current price, contact:
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Delegation & Airworthiness Programs Branch, AIR-140
P.O. Box 26460
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
Telephone Number: (405) 954-4103
Fax: (405) 954-4104

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE - SPECIAL FLIGHT PERMITS

AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES
A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same design. The unsafe condition may exist because of a design defect, maintenance, or other causes. 14 CFR part 39, Airworthiness Directives (ADs), defines the authority and responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary corrective action. ADs are the means used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify the conditions under which the product may continue to be operated.
ADs may be divided into two categories:

1. those of an emergency nature requiring immediate compliance prior to further flight, and
2. those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance within a specified period of time.

Airworthiness Directives are regulatory and shall be complied with unless a specific exemption is granted.

It is the aircraft owner or operator's responsibility to ensure compliance with all pertinent ADs. This includes those ADs that require recurrent or continuing action. For example, an AD may require a repetitive inspection each 50 hours of operation, meaning the particular inspection shall be accomplished and recorded every 50 hours of time in service.

Owners/operators are reminded there is no provision to overfly the maximum hour requirement of an AD unless it is specifically written into the AD. To help determine if an AD applies to an amateur-built aircraft, contact the local FSDO.

14 CFR part 91, section 91.417 requires a record to be maintained that shows the current status of applicable ADs, including the method of compliance; the AD number and revision date, if recurring; the time and date when due again; the signature; kind of certificate; and certificate number of the repair station or mechanic who performed the work. For ready reference, many aircraft owners have a chronological listing of the pertinent ADs in the back of their aircraft, engine, and propeller maintenance records.

All Airworthiness Directives and the AD Biweekly are free on the Internet at www.airweb.faa.gov/rgl Paper copies of the Summary of Airworthiness Directives and the AD Biweekly may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents. The Summary contains all the valid ADs previously published and is divided into two areas. The small aircraft and rotorcraft books contain all ADs applicable to small aircraft (12,500 pounds or less maximum certificate takeoff weight) and ADs applicable to all helicopters. The large aircraft books contain all ADs applicable to large aircraft.

For further information on how to order ADs and the current price, contact:
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Delegation & Airworthiness Programs Branch, AIR-140
P.O. Box 26460
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
Telephone Number: (405) 954-4103
Fax: (405) 954-4104

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE - SPECIAL FLIGHT PERMITS

A special flight permit is a Special Airworthiness Certificate issued authorizing operation of an aircraft that does not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is safe for a specific flight. Before the permit is issued, an FAA inspector may personally inspect the aircraft, or require it to be inspected by an FAA certificate A&P mechanic or an appropriately certificate repair station, to determine its safety for the intended flight. The inspection shall be recorded in the aircraft records.

The special flight permit is issued to allow the aircraft to be flown to a base where repairs, alterations, or maintenance can be performed; for delivering or exporting the aircraft; or for evacuating an aircraft from an area of impending danger. A special flight permit may be issued to allow the operation of an overweight aircraft for flight beyond its normal range over water or land areas where adequate landing facilities or fuel is not available.

If a special flight permit is needed, assistance and the necessary forms may be obtained from the local FSDO or Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR).

REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS

Repairs and alterations are classified as either major or minor. 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A, describes the alterations and repairs considered major. Major repairs or alterations shall be approved for return to service on FAA Form 337, Major Repairs and Major Alterations, by an appropriately rated certificate repair station, an FAA certificate A&P mechanic holding an Inspection Authorization, or a representative of the Administrator.

Minor repairs and minor alterations may be approved for return to service with a proper entry in the maintenance records by an FAA certificate A&P mechanic or an appropriately certificate repair station.

For modifications of experimental aircraft, refer to the operating limitations issued to that aircraft.

Modifications in accordance with FAA Order 8130.2, Airworthiness Certification of Aircraft and Related Products, may require the notification of the issuing authority.

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE - PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Preventive maintenance is considered to be simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts, not involving complex assembly operations. Certificate pilots, excluding student pilots, sport pilots, and recreational pilots, may perform preventive maintenance on any aircraft that is owned or operated by them provided that aircraft is not used in air carrier service. (Sport pilots operating light sport aircraft; refer to 14 CFR part 65 for maintenance privileges.) 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A, contains a list of the operations that are considered to be preventive maintenance.

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE - AIRCRAFT INSPECTIONS

14 CFR part 91 places primary responsibility on the owner or operator for maintaining an aircraft in an airworthy condition. Certain inspections must be performed on the aircraft, and the owner must maintain the airworthiness of the aircraft during the time between required inspections by having any defects corrected.

14 CFR part 91, sub-part E, requires the inspection of all civil aircraft at specific intervals to determine the overall condition. The interval depends upon the type of operations in which the aircraft is engaged.

Some aircraft need to be inspected at least once each 12-calendar month, while inspection is required for others after each 100 hours of operation. In some instances, an aircraft may be inspected in accordance with an inspection system set up to provide for total inspection of the aircraft on the basis of calendar time, time in service, number of system operations, or any combination of these.

All inspections should follow the current manufacturer's maintenance manual, including the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness concerning inspection intervals, parts replacement, and life-limited items as applicable to the aircraft.

ANNUAL INSPECTION
Any reciprocating-engine powered or single-engine-turbojet/ turbo-propeller powered small aircraft (12,500 pounds and under) flown for business or pleasure and not flown for compensation or hire is required to be inspected at least annually. The inspection shall be performed by a certificate airframe and powerplant (A&P) mechanic who holds an Inspection Authorization (IA), by the manufacturer, or by a certificate and appropriately rated repair station. The aircraft may not be operated unless the annual inspection has been performed within the preceding 12-calendar months. A period of 12-calendar months extends from any day of a month to the last day of the same month the following year. An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection may be operated under a Special Flight Permit issued by the FAA for the purpose of flying the aircraft to a location where the annual inspection can be performed.

However, all applicable Airworthiness Directives that are due must be complied with.

100-HOUR INSPECTION
All aircraft under 12,500 pounds (except turbojet/turbo-propeller powered multi-engine airplanes and turbine-powered rotorcraft), used to carry passengers for hire, must have received a 100-hour inspection within the preceding 100 hours of time in service and have been approved for return to service. Additionally, an aircraft used for flight instruction for hire, when provided by the person giving the flight instruction, must also have received a 100-hour inspection. This inspection must be performed by a FAA certificate A&P mechanic, an appropriately rated FAA certificate repair station, or by the aircraft manufacturer. An annual inspection or an inspection for the issuance of an Airworthiness Certificate may be substituted for a required 100-hour inspection. The 100-hour limitation may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while en route to reach a place where the inspection can be done. The excess time used to reach a place where the inspection can be done must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service.

OTHER INSPECTION PROGRAMS
The annual and 100-hour inspection requirements do not apply to large (over 12,500 pounds) airplanes, turbojets, or turbo-propeller powered multiengine airplanes or to aircraft for which the owner complies with a progressive inspection program. Details of these requirements may be determined by reference to 14 CFR part 43, section 43.11 and part 91, subpart E, and by inquiring at a local FSDO.

ALTIMETER SYSTEM INSPECTION
14 CFR part 91, section 91.411 requires that the altimeter, encoding altimeter, and related system be tested and inspected in the preceding 24 months before operated in controlled airspace under instrument flight rules (IFR).

TRANSPONDER INSPECTION
14 CFR part 91, section 91.413 requires that before a transponder can be used under 14 CFR part 91, section 91.215(a), it shall be tested and inspected within the preceding 24 months.

PREFLIGHT INSPECTIONS
The preflight inspection is a thorough and systematic means by which a pilot determines if the aircraft is airworthy and in condition for safe operation. POHs and owner/information manuals contain a section devoted to a systematic method of performing a preflight inspection.

MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LISTS (MEL) AND OPERATIONS WITH INOPERATIVE EQUIPMENT
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) requires that all aircraft instruments and installed equipment are operative prior to each departure. When the FAA adopted the minimum equipment list (MEL) concept for 14 CFR part 91 operations, this allowed for the first time, operations with inoperative items determined to be nonessential for safe flight. At the same time, it allowed part 91 operators, without an MEL, to defer repairs on nonessential equipment within the guidelines of part 91.

There are two primary methods of deferring maintenance on small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under part 91. They are the deferral provision of 14 CFR part 91, section 91.213(d) and an FAA-approved MEL.

The deferral provision of section 91.213(d) is widely used by most pilot/operators. Its popularity is due to simplicity and minimal paperwork. When inoperative equipment is found during preflight or prior to departure, the decision should be to cancel the flight, obtain maintenance prior to flight, or to defer the item or equipment.

Maintenance deferrals are not used for in-flight discrepancies.

The manufacturer's AFM/POH procedures are to be used in those situations. The discussion that follows assumes that the pilot wishes to defer maintenance that would ordinarily be required prior to flight.

Using the deferral provision of section 91.213(d), the pilot determines whether the inoperative equipment is required by type design, the CFRs, or ADs. If the inoperative item is not required, and the aircraft can be safely operated without it, the deferral may be made.

The inoperative item shall be deactivated or removed and an INOPERATIVE placard placed near the appropriate switch, control, or indicator. If deactivation or removal involves maintenance (removal always will), it must be accomplished by certificate maintenance personnel.

For example, if the position lights (installed equipment) were discovered to be inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would follow the requirements of section 91.213(d).

The deactivation may be a process as simple as the pilot positioning a circuit breaker to the OFF position, or as complex as rendering instruments or equipment totally inoperable. Complex maintenance tasks require a certificate and appropriately rated maintenance person to perform the deactivation. In all cases, the item or equipment must be placarded INOPERATIVE.

All small rotorcraft, non-turbine-powered airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under part 91 are eligible to use the maintenance deferral provisions of section 91.213(d). However, once an operator requests an MEL, and a Letter of Authorization (LOA) is issued by the FAA, then the use of the MEL becomes mandatory for that aircraft. All maintenance deferrals must be accomplished in accordance with the terms and conditions of the MEL and the operator-generated procedures document.

The use of an MEL for an aircraft operated under part 91 also allows for the deferral of inoperative items or equipment. The primary guidance becomes the FAA approved MEL issued to that specific operator and N-numbered aircraft.

The FAA has developed master minimum equipment lists (MMELs) for aircraft in current use. Upon written request by an operator, the local FSDO may issue the appropriate make and model MMEL, along with an LOA, and the preamble. The operator then develops operations and maintenance (O&M) procedures from the MMEL. This MMEL with O&M procedures now becomes the operator's MEL. The MEL, LOA, preamble, and procedures document developed by the operator must be on board the aircraft when it is operated.

The FAA considers an approved MEL to be a supplemental type certificate (STC) issued to an aircraft by serial number and registration number. It therefore becomes the authority to operate that aircraft in a condition other than originally type certificate.

With an approved MEL, if the position lights were discovered inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would make an entry in the maintenance record or discrepancy record provided for that purpose. The item is then either repaired or deferred in accordance with the MEL. Upon confirming that daytime flight with inoperative position lights is acceptable in accordance with the provisions of the MEL, the pilot would leave the position lights switch OFF, open the circuit breaker (or whatever action is called for in the procedures document), and placard the position light switch as INOPERATIVE.

There are exceptions to the use of the MEL for deferral.

For example, should a component fail that is not listed in the MEL as deferrable (the tachometer, flaps, or stall warning device, for example), then repairs are required to be performed prior to departure. If maintenance or parts are not readily available at that location, a special flight permit can be obtained from the nearest FSDO.

This permit allows the aircraft to be flown to another location for maintenance. This allows an aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements, but is capable of safe flight, to be operated under the restrictive special terms and conditions attached to the special flight permit.

Deferral of maintenance is not to be taken lightly, and due consideration should be given to the effect an inoperative component may have on the operation of an aircraft, particularly if other items are inoperative.

Further information regarding MELs and operations with inoperative equipment can be found in Advisory Circular (AC) 91-67, Minimum Equipment Requirements for General Aviation Operations under FAR Part 91.

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE

Maintenance is defined as the preservation, inspection, overhaul, and repair of an aircraft, including the replacement of parts. A PROPERLY MAINTAINED AIRCRAFT IS A SAFE AIRCRAFT. In addition, regular and proper maintenance ensures that an aircraft meets an acceptable standard of airworthiness throughout its operational life.

Although maintenance requirements vary for different types of aircraft, experience shows that aircraft need some type of preventive maintenance every 25 hours of flying time or less, and minor maintenance at least every 100 hours. The kind of operation, climatic conditions, storage facilities, ages, and construction of the aircraft influences this. Manufacturers supply maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, and other service information that should be used in maintaining the aircraft.

AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS

CERTIFICATE OF AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION
Before an aircraft can be flown legally, it must be registered with the FAA Civil Aviation Registry. The Certificate of Aircraft Registration, which is issued to the owner as evidence of the registration, must be carried in the aircraft at all times.

The Certificate of Aircraft Registration cannot be used for operations when:

• The aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign country.
• The aircraft's registration is canceled at the written request of the holder of the certificate.
• The aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped.
• The ownership of the aircraft is transferred.
• The holder of the certificate loses United States citizenship.

For additional events, see 14 CFR section 47.41.

When one of the events listed in 14 CFR section 47.41 occurs, the previous owner must notify the FAA by filling in the back of the Certificate of Aircraft Registration, and mailing it to:
Federal Aviation Administration Civil Aviation Registry, AFS-750 P.O. Box 25504
Oklahoma City, OK 73125

A dealer's aircraft registration certificate is another form of registration certificate, but is valid only for required flight tests by the manufacturer or in flights that are necessary for the sale of the aircraft by the manufacturer or a dealer. The dealer must remove it when the aircraft is sold.

After compliance with 14 CFR section 47.31, the pink copy of the application for a Certificate of Aircraft Registration is authorization to operate an unregistered aircraft for a period not to exceed 90 days. Since the aircraft is unregistered, it cannot be operated outside of the United States until a permanent Certificate of Aircraft Registration is received and placed in the aircraft.

The FAA does not issue any certificate of ownership or endorse any information with respect to ownership on a Certificate of Aircraft Registration.

NOTE: For additional information concerning the Aircraft Registration Application or the Aircraft Bill of Sale, contact the nearest FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).

AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATE
An Airworthiness Certificate is issued by a representative of the FAA after the aircraft has been inspected, is found to meet the requirements of 14 CFR part 21, and is in condition for safe operation. The Airworthiness Certificate must be displayed in the aircraft so it is legible to the passengers and crew whenever it is operated. The Airworthiness Certificate is transferred with the aircraft except when it is sold to a foreign purchaser.

A Standard Airworthiness Certificate is issued for aircraft type certificate in the normal, utility, acrobatic, commuter, and transport categories or for manned free balloons. Figure 7-8 illustrates a Standard Airworthiness Certificate, and an explanation of each item in the certificate follows.

Item 1 Nationality—The "N" indicates the aircraft is registered in the United States. Registration marks consist of a series of up to five numbers or numbers and letters. In this case, N2631A is the registration number assigned to this airplane.

Item 2—Indicates the manufacturer, makes, and models of the aircraft.

Item 3—Indicates the manufacturer's serial number assigned to the aircraft, as noted on the aircraft data plate.

Item 4—Indicates the category in which the aircraft must be operated. In this case, it must be operated in accordance with the limitations specified for the "NORMAL" category.

Item 5—Indicates the aircraft conforms to its type certificate and is considered in condition for safe operation at the time of inspection and issuance of the certificate. Any exemptions from the applicable airworthiness standards are briefly noted here and the exemption number given. The word "NONE" is entered if no exemption exists.

Item 6—Indicates the Airworthiness Certificate is in effect indefinitely if the aircraft is maintained in accordance with 14 CFR parts 21, 43, and 91, and the aircraft is registered in the United States.

Also included are the date the certificate was issued and the signature and office identification of the FAA representative. A Standard Airworthiness Certificate remains in effect as long as the aircraft receives the required maintenance and is properly registered in the United States. Flight safety relies, in part, on the condition of the aircraft, which is determined by inspections performed by mechanics, approved repair stations, or manufacturers who meet specific requirements of 14 CFR part 43.

A Special Airworthiness Certificate is issued for all aircraft certificate in other than the Standard classifications, such as Experimental, Restricted, Limited, Provisional, and Sport Pilot. When purchasing an aircraft classified as other than Standard, it is recommended that the local FSDO be contacted for an explanation of the pertinent airworthiness requirements and the limitations of such a certificate.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUALS - SUPPLEMENTS AND SAFETY TIPS

SUPPLEMENTS (SECTION 9)
The Supplements section describes pertinent information necessary to safely and efficiently operate the airplane when equipped with the various optional systems and equipment not provided with the standard airplane. Some of this information may be supplied by the airplane manufacturer, or by the manufacturer of the optional equipment. The appropriate information is inserted into the flight manual at the time the equipment is installed. Autopilots, navigation systems, and air-conditioning systems are examples of equipment described in this section.

SAFETY TIPS (SECTION 10)
The Safety Tips section is an optional section containing a review of information that enhances the safe operation of the airplane. Some examples of the information that might be covered include physiological factors, general weather information, fuel conservation procedures, high altitude operations, and cold weather operations.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUALS - SYSTEM DESCRIPTION, HANDLING, SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE

SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION (SECTION 7)
The Systems Description section is where the manufacturer describes the systems in enough detail for the pilot to understand how the systems operate. For more information on airplane systems, refer to Aircraft Systems.

HANDLING, SERVICE, AND MAINTENANCE (SECTION 8)
The Handling, Service, and Maintenance section describes the maintenance and inspections recommended by the manufacturer and the regulations.

Additional maintenance or inspections may be required by the issuance of Airworthiness Directives (AD) applicable to the airplane, engine, propeller, and components.

This section also describes preventive maintenance that may be accomplished by certificate pilots, as well as the manufacturer's recommended ground handling procedures. This includes considerations for hangaring, tie-down, and general storage procedures for the airplane.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUALS - PERFORMANCE AND WEIGHT AND BALANCE

PERFORMANCE (SECTION 5)
The Performance section contains all the information required by the aircraft certification regulations, and any additional performance information the manufacturer feels may enhance a pilot's ability to safely operate the airplane. Performance charts, tables, and graphs vary in style, but all contain the same basic information. Some examples of the performance information found in most flight manuals include a graph or table for converting calibrated airspeed into true airspeed; stall speeds in various configurations; and data for determining takeoff and climb performance, cruise performance, and landing performance. For more information on how to use the charts, graphs, and tables, refer to Aircraft Performance.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE/EQUIPMENT LIST (SECTION 6)
The Weight and Balance/Equipment List section contains all the information required by the FAA to calculate the weight and balance of the airplane.

Manufacturers include sample weight and balance problems. Weight and balance is discussed in greater detail in Weight and Balance.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUALS - EMERGENCY AND NORMAL PROCEDURES

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES (SECTION 3)
Checklists describing the recommended procedures and airspeeds for coping with various types of emergencies or critical situations are located in the Emergency Procedures section. Some of the emergencies covered include: engine failure, fires, and systems failures. The procedures for in-flight engine restarting and ditching may also be included.

Manufacturers may first show the emergencies checklists in an abbreviated form with the order of items reflecting the sequence of action. Amplified checklists that provide additional information on the procedures follow the abbreviated checklist. To be prepared for emergency situations, memorize the immediate action items and after completion, refer to the appropriate checklist.

Manufacturers may include an optional area titled "Abnormal Procedures." This section describes recommended procedures for handling malfunctions that are not considered emergencies in nature.

NORMAL PROCEDURES (SECTION 4)
This section begins with a listing of the airspeeds for normal operations. The next area consists of several checklists that may include preflight inspection, before starting procedures, starting engine, before taxiing, taxiing, before takeoff, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, before landing, balked landing, after landing, and postflight procedures. An Amplified Procedures area follows the checklists to provide more detailed information about the various procedures.

To avoid missing important steps, always use the appropriate checklists whenever they are available. Consistent adherence to approved checklists is a sign of a disciplined and competent pilot.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUALS - LIMITATIONS (SECTION 2)

The Limitations section contains only those limitations required by regulation or that are necessary for the safe operation of the airplane, powerplant, systems, and equipment. It includes operating limitations, instrument markings, color-coding, and basic placards. Some of the limitation areas are: airspeed, powerplant, weight and loading distribution, and flight.

AIRSPEED
Airspeed limitations are shown on the airspeed indicator by color-coding and on placards or graphs in the airplane.

A red line on the airspeed indicator shows the airspeed limit beyond which structural damage could occur. This is called the never-exceed speed (VNE). A yellow arc indicates the speed range between maximum structural cruising speed (VNO) and VNE.

Operation of the airplane in the yellow airspeed arc is for smooth air only, and then with caution. A green arc depicts the normal operating speed range, with the upper end at VNO, and the lower end at stalling speed at maximum weight with the landing gear and flaps retracted (VS1). The white arc depicts the flap operating range, with the upper end at the maximum flap extended speed (VFE), and the lower end at the stalling speed with the landing gear and flaps in the landing configuration (VSO).

In addition to the markings listed above, small multiengine airplanes will have a red radial line to indicate single-engine minimum controllable airspeed (VMC). A blue radial line is used to indicate single-engine best rate-of-climb speed at maximum weight at sea level (VYSE).

POWERPLANT
The Powerplant Limitations area describes operating limitations on the airplane's reciprocating or turbine engine(s). These include limitations for takeoff power, maximum continuous power, and maximum normal operating power, which is the maximum power the engine can produce without any restrictions, and is depicted by a green arc. Other items that can be included in this area are the minimum and maximum oil and fuel pressures, oil and fuel grades, and propeller operating limits.

All reciprocating engine powered airplanes must have a rpm indicator for each engine. Airplanes equipped with a constant-speed propeller use a manifold pressure gauge to monitor power output and a rpm gauge to monitor propeller speed. Both instruments depict the maximum operating limit with a red radial line and the normal operating range with a green arc. Some instruments may have a yellow arc to indicate a caution area.

WEIGHT AND LOADING DISTRIBUTION
The Weight and Loading Distribution area contains the maximum certificate weights, as well as the center-of-gravity (CG) range. The location of the reference datum used in balance computations is included in this section. Weight and balance computations are not provided in this area, but rather in the Weight and Balance section of the AFM/POH.

FLIGHT LIMITS
This area lists authorized maneuvers with appropriate entry speeds, flight load factor limits, and kinds of operation limits. It also indicates those maneuvers that are prohibited, such as spins, acrobatic flight, and operational limitations such as flight into known icing conditions.

PLACARDS
Most airplanes display one or more placards that contain information having a direct bearing on the safe operation of the airplane. These placards are located in conspicuous places within the airplane and are reproduced in the Limitations section or as directed by an Airworthiness Directive (AD).

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUALS - GENERAL (SECTION 1)

The General section provides the basic descriptive information on the airplane and powerplant(s). Some manuals include a three-view drawing of the airplane that provides dimensions of various components.

Included are such items as wingspan, maximum height, overall length, wheel base length, main landing gear track width, maximum propeller diameter, propeller ground clearance, minimum turning radius, and wing area. This section serves as a quick reference in becoming familiar with the airplane.

The last segment of the General section contains definitions, abbreviations, explanations of symbology, and some of the terminology used in the POH. At the option of the manufacturer, metric and other conversion tables may also be included.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUALS - PRELIMINARY PAGES

While the AFM/POH may appear similar for the same make and model of airplane, each manual is unique since it contains specific information about a particular airplane, such as the equipment installed and weight and balance information. Therefore, manufacturers are required to include the serial number and registration on the title page to identify the airplane to which the manual belongs. If a manual does not indicate a specific airplane registration and serial number, it is limited to general study purposes only.

Most manufacturers include a table of contents, which identifies the order of the entire manual by section number and title. Usually, each section also contains its own table of contents. Page numbers reflect the section and page within that section (1-1, 1-2, 2-1, 3-1, and so forth). If the manual is published in loose-leaf form, each section is usually marked with a divider tab indicating the section number or title, or both. The Emergency Procedures section may have a red tab for quick identification and reference.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUALS

An airplane flight manual is a document developed by the airplane manufacturer and approved by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). It is specific to a particular make and models airplane by serial number and contains operating procedures and limitations. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 requires that pilots comply with the operating limitations specified in the approved airplane flight manuals, markings, and placards. Originally, flight manuals followed whatever format and content the manufacturer felt was appropriate. This changed with the acceptance of the General Aviation Manufacturers Association's (GAMA) Specification for Pilot's Operating Handbook, which established a standardized format for all general aviation airplane and rotorcraft flight manuals. The Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH) is developed by the airplane manufacturer and contains the FAA-approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) information. However, if Pilot's Operating Handbook is used as the main title instead of Airplane Flight Manual, a statement must be included on the title page indicating that sections of the document are FAA-approved as the Airplane
Flight Manual.
 
An airplane owner/information manual is a document developed by the airplane manufacturer containing general information about the make and model of airplane.

The airplane owner's manual is not FAA-approved and is not specific to a particular serial numbered airplane.

This manual provides general information about the operation of the airplane and is not kept current, and therefore cannot be substituted for the AFM/POH.

Besides the preliminary pages, a POH may contain as many as ten sections. These sections are: General; Limitations; Emergency Procedures; Normal Procedures; Performance; Weight and Balance/Equipment List; Systems Description; Handling, Service, and Maintenance; and Supplements. Manufacturers have the option of including a tenth section on Safety Tips, as well as an alphabetical index at the end of the POH.

OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE GAUGE

The outside air temperature gauge (OAT) is a simple and effective device mounted so that the sensing element is exposed to the outside air. The sensing element consists of a bimetallic-type thermometer in which two dissimilar materials are welded together in a single strip and twisted into a helix.

One end is anchored into protective tube and the other end is affixed to the pointer, which reads against the calibration on a circular face. OAT gauges are calibrated in degrees Celsius, Fahrenheit, or both. An accurate air temperature will provide the pilot with useful information about temperature lapse rate with altitude change.

VERTICAL CARD COMPASS

A newer design, the vertical card compass significantly reduces the inherent error of the older compass designs.

It consists of an azimuth on a rotating vertical card, and resembles a heading indicator with a fixed miniature airplane to accurately present the heading of the airplane.

The presentation is easy to read, and the pilot can see the complete 360° dial in relation to the airplane heading. This design uses eddy current damping to minimize lead and lag during turns.

COMPASS ERRORS VARIATION - TURNING ERRORS

Turning errors is most apparent when turning to or from a heading of north or south. This error increases as the poles are neared and magnetic dip becomes more apparent. There is no turning error when flying near the magnetic equator.

In the Northern Hemisphere, when making a turn from a northerly heading, the compass gives an initial indication of a turn in the opposite direction. It then begins to show the turn in the proper direction, but lags behind the actual heading. The amount of lag decreases as the turn continues, then disappears as the airplane reaches a heading of east or west. When turning from a heading of east or west to a heading of north, there is no error as the turn begins. However, as the heading approach north, the compass increasingly lags behind the airplane's actual heading. When making a turn from a southerly heading, the compass gives an indication of a turn in the correct direction, but leads the actual heading. This error also disappears as the airplane approaches an east or west heading. Turning from east or west to a heading of south causes the compass to move correctly at the start of a turn, but then it increasingly leads the actual heading as the airplane nears a southerly direction.

The amount of lead or lag is approximately equal to the latitude of the airplane. For example, if turning from a heading of south to a heading of west while flying at 40° north latitude, the compass rapidly turns to a heading of 220° (180° + 40°). At the midpoint of the turn, the lead decreases to approximately half (20°), and upon reaching a heading of west, it is zero.

The magnetic compass, which is the only direction-seeking instrument in the airplane, should be read only when the airplane is flying straight and level at a constant speed.

This will help reduce errors to a minimum. If the pilot thoroughly understands the errors and characteristics of the magnetic compass, this instrument can become the most reliable means of determining headings.

Instrument check—Prior to flight, make sure that the compass is full of fluid. Then during turns, the compass should swing freely and indicate known headings.

COMPASS ERRORS VARIATION - USING THE MAGNETIC COMPASS ACCELERATION/DECELERATION ERRORS

Acceleration and deceleration errors are fluctuations in the compass during changes in speed. In the Northern Hemisphere, the compass swings towards the north during acceleration, and towards the south during deceleration. When the speed stabilizes, the compass returns to an accurate indication. This error is most pronounced when flying on a heading of east or west, and decreases gradually when flying closer to a north or south heading. The error does not occur when flying directly north or south. The memory aid, ANDS (Accelerate North, Decelerate South) may help in recalling this error. In the Southern Hemisphere, this error occurs in the opposite direction.

COMPASS ERRORS VARIATION - MAGNETIC DIP

Magnetic dip is the result of the vertical component of the Earth's magnetic field. This dip is virtually nonexistent at the magnetic equator, since the lines of force are parallel to the Earth's surface and the vertical component is minimal. When a compass is moved toward the poles, the vertical component increases, and magnetic dip becomes more apparent at higher latitudes. Magnetic dip is responsible for compass errors during acceleration, deceleration, and turns.

COMPASS ERRORS VARIATION - COMPASS DEVIATION

Besides the magnetic fields generated by the Earth, metal and electrical accessories within the airplane produce other magnetic fields. These magnetic fields distort the Earth's magnetic force, and cause the compass to swing away from the correct heading.

This error is called deviation. Manufacturers install compensating magnets within the compass housing to reduce the effects of deviation. The magnets are usually adjusted while the engine is running and all electrical equipment is operating. However, it is not possible to completely eliminate deviation error; therefore, a compass correction card is mounted near the compass. This card corrects for deviation that occurs from one heading to the next as the lines of force interact at different angles.

COMPASS ERRORS VARIATION

Although the magnetic field of the Earth lies roughly north and south, the Earth's magnetic poles do not coincide with its geographic poles, which are used in the construction of aeronautical charts. Consequently, at most places on the Earth's surface, the direction sensitive steel needles that seek the Earth's magnetic field will not point to true north, but to magnetic north.

Furthermore, local magnetic fields from mineral deposits and other conditions may distort the Earth's magnetic field, and cause additional error in the position of the compass' north-seeking magnetized needles with reference to true north.

The angular difference between magnetic north, the reference for the magnetic compass, and true north is variation. Lines that connect points of equal variation are called isogonic lines. The line connecting points where the magnetic variation is zero is an agonic line.

To convert from true courses or headings to magnetic, subtract easterly variation and add westerly variation.

Reverse the process to convert from magnetic to true.

MAGNETIC COMPASS

Since the magnetic compass works on the principle of magnetism, it is well for the pilot to have at least a basic understanding of magnetism. A simple bar magnet has two centers of magnetism which are called poles. Lines of magnetic force flow out from each pole in all directions, eventually bending around and returning to the other pole. The area through which these lines of force flow are called the field of the magnet. For the purpose of this discussion, the poles are designated "north" and "south." If two bar magnets are placed near each other, the North Pole of one will attract the South Pole of the other. There is evidence that there is a magnetic field surrounding the Earth, and this theory is applied in the design of the magnetic compass. It acts very much as though there were a huge bar magnet running along the axis of the Earth which ends several hundred miles below the surface.
 
The geographic north and south poles form the axis for the Earth's rotation. These positions are also referred to as true north and south. The magnetic north and south poles form another axis. Lines of magnetic force flow out from each pole in all directions, and eventually return to the opposite pole. A compass aligns itself with the magnetic axis formed by the north/south magnetic field of the Earth.

The lines of force have a vertical component (or pull) which is zero at the Equator, but builds to 100 percent of the total force at the magnetic poles. If magnetic needles, such as in the airplane's magnetic compass, are held along these lines of force, the vertical component causes one end of the needle to dip or deflect downward. The amount of dip increases as the needles are moved closer and closer to the poles. It is this deflection, or dip, that causes some of the larger compass errors.

The magnetic compass, which is usually the only direction-seeking instrument in the airplane, is simple in construction. It contains two steel magnetized needles fastened to a float, around which is mounted a compass card. The needles are parallel, with their north-seeking ends pointing in the same direction. The compass card has letters for cardinal headings, and a number, the last zero of which is omitted, represents each 30° interval. For example, 30° appear as a 3 and 300° appears as a 30. Between these numbers, the card is graduated for each 5°. The magnetic compass is required equipment in all airplanes. It is used to set the gyroscopic heading indicator, correct for precession, and as a backup in the event the heading indicator(s) fails.

GYROSCOPIC HEADING INDICATOR

The heading indicator (or directional gyro) is fundamentally a mechanical instrument designed to facilitate the use of the magnetic compass. Errors in the magnetic compass are numerous, making straight flight and precision turns to headings difficult to accomplish, particularly in turbulent air. The forces that make the magnetic compass difficult to interpret, however, do not affect a heading indicator.
 
The operation of the heading indicator depends upon the principle of rigidity in space. The rotor turns in a vertical plane, and fixed to the rotor is a compass card.

Since the rotor remains rigid in space, the points on the card hold the same position in space relative to the vertical plane. As the instrument case and the airplane revolve around the vertical axis, the card provides clear and accurate heading information.

Because of precession, caused by friction, the heading indicator will creep or drift from a heading to which it is set. Among other factors, the amount of drift depends largely upon the condition of the instrument. If the bearings are worn, dirty, or improperly lubricated, the drift may be excessive. Another error in the heading indicator is caused by the fact that the gyro is oriented in space, and the earth rotates in space at a rate of 15° in 1 hour. Thus, discounting precession caused by friction, the heading indicator may indicate as much as 15° error per every hour of operation.

Some heading indicators receive a magnetic north reference from a magnetic slaving transmitter, and generally need no adjustment. Heading indicators that do not have this automatic north-seeking capability are called "free" gyros, and require periodic adjustment. It is important to check the indications frequently (approximately every 15 minutes) and reset the heading indicator to align it with the magnetic compass when required.

Adjust the heading indicator to the magnetic compass heading when the airplane is straight and level at a constant speed to avoid compass errors.

The bank and pitch limits of the heading indicator vary with the particular design and make of instrument. On some heading indicators found in light airplanes, the limits are approximately 55° of pitch and 55° of bank.

When either of these attitude limits is exceeded, the instrument "tumbles" or "spills" and no longer gives the correct indication until reset. After spilling, it may be reset with the caging knob. Many of the modern instruments used are designed in such a manner that they will not tumble.

Instrument Check—As the gyro spools up, make sure there are no abnormal sounds. While taxiing, the instrument should indicate turns in the correct direction, and precession should not be abnormal. At idle power settings, the gyroscopic instruments using the vacuum system might not be up to operating speeds and precession might occur more rapidly than during flight.

INCLINOMETER

The inclinometer is used to depict airplane yaw, which is the side-to-side movement of the airplane's nose. During coordinated, straight-and-level flight, the force of gravity causes the ball to rest in the lowest part of the tube, centered between the reference lines. Coordinated flight is maintained by keeping the ball centered. If the ball is not centered, using the rudder can center it.

To do this, apply rudder pressure on the side where the ball is deflected. Use the simple rule, "step on the ball," to remember which rudder pedal to press. If aileron and rudder are coordinated during a turn, the ball remains centered in the tube. If aerodynamic forces are unbalanced, the ball moves away from the center of the tube. As shown in figure 6-15, in a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the inside of the turn. In a skid, the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the outside of the turn. To correct for these conditions, and improve the quality of the turn, remember to "step on the ball." Varying the angle of bank can also help restore coordinated flight from a slip or skid.

To correct for a slip, decrease bank and/or increase the rate of turn. To correct for a skid, increase the bank and/or decrease the rate of turn.

Instrument Check—During the preflight, check to see that the inclinometer is full of fluid and has no air bubbles. The ball should also be resting at its lowest point. When taxiing, the turn coordinator should indicate a turn in the correct direction.

GYROSCOPIC TURN INDICATORS

Airplanes use two types of turn indicators—the turn and- slip indicator and the turn coordinator. Because of the way the gyro is mounted, the turn-and-slip indicator only shows the rate of turn in degrees per second. Because the gyro on the turn coordinator is set at an angle, or canted, it can initially also show roll rate.

Once the roll stabilizes, it indicates rate of turn. Both instruments indicate turn direction and quality (coordination), and also serve as a backup source of bank information in the event an attitude indicator fails. Coordination is achieved by referring to the inclinometer, which consists of a liquid-filled curved tube with a ball inside.

TURN-AND-SLIP INDICATOR
The gyro in the turn-and-slip indicator rotates in the vertical plane, corresponding to the airplane's longitudinal axis. A single gimbal limits the planes in which the gyro can tilt, and a spring tries to return it to center. Because of precession, a yawing force causes the gyro to tilt left or right as viewed from the pilot seat.

The turn-and-slip indicator uses a pointer, called the turn needle, to show the direction and rate of turn.

TURN COORDINATOR
The gimbal in the turn coordinator is canted; therefore, its gyro can sense both rate of roll and rate of turn.

Since turn coordinators are more prevalent in training airplanes, this discussion concentrates on that instrument. When rolling into or out of a turn, the miniature airplane banks in the direction the airplane is rolled. A rapid roll rate causes the miniature airplane to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate.

The turn coordinator can be used to establish and maintain a standard-rate-turn by aligning the wing of the miniature airplane with the turn index. The turn coordinator indicates only the rate and direction of turn; it does not display a specific angle of bank.

GYROSCOPIC SOURCES OF POWER

In some airplanes, all the gyros are vacuums, pressure, or electrically operated; in others, vacuum or pressure systems provide the power for the heading and attitude indicators, while the electrical system provides the power for the turn coordinator. Most airplanes have at least two sources of power to ensure at least one source of bank information if one power source fails.

The vacuum or pressure system spins the gyro by drawing a stream of air against the rotor vanes to spin the rotor at high speed, much like the operation of a waterwheel or turbine. The amount of vacuum or pressure required for instrument operation varies, but is usually between 4.5 and 5.5 in. Hg.

One source of vacuum for the gyros is a vane-type engine-driven pump that is mounted on the accessory case of the engine. Pump capacity varies in different airplanes, depending on the number of gyros.

A typical vacuum system consists of an engine-driven vacuum pump, relief valve, air filter, gauge, and tubing necessary to complete the connections. The gauge is mounted in the airplane's instrument panel and indicates the amount of pressure in the system (vacuum is measured in inches of mercury less than ambient pressure).

Air is drawn into the vacuum system by the engine-driven vacuum pump. It first goes through a filter, which prevents foreign matter from entering the vacuum or pressure system. The air then moves through the attitude and heading indicators, where it causes the gyros to spin. A relief valve prevents the vacuum pressure, or suction, from exceeding prescribed limits. After that, the air is expelled overboard or used in other systems, such as for inflating pneumatic deicing boots.

It is important to monitor vacuum pressure during flight, because the attitude and heading indicators may not provide reliable information when suction pressure is low. The vacuum, or suction, gauge generally is marked to indicate the normal range. Some airplanes are equipped with a warning light that illuminates when the vacuum pressure drops below the acceptable level.

GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS PRINCIPLES

Several flight instruments utilize the properties of a gyroscope for their operation. The most common instruments containing gyroscopes are the turn coordinator, heading indicator, and the attitude indicator. To understand how these instruments operate requires knowledge of the instrument power systems, gyroscopic principles, and the operating principles of each instrument.

GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic properties. A wheel or rotor designed and mounted to utilize these properties is called a gyroscope. Two important design characteristics of an instrument gyro are great weight for its size, or high density, and rotation at high speed with low friction bearings.

There are two general types of mountings; the type used depends upon which property of the gyro is utilized. A freely or universally mounted gyroscope is free to rotate in any direction about its center of gravity. Such a wheel is said to have three planes of freedom. The wheel or rotor is free to rotate in any plane in relation to the base and is so balanced that with the gyro wheel at rest, it will remain in the position in which it is placed. Restricted or semi-rigidly mounted gyroscopes are those mounted so that one of the planes of freedom is held fixed in relation to the base.

There are two fundamental properties of gyroscopic action—rigidity in space and precession.

RIGIDITY IN SPACE
Rigidity in space refers to the principle that a gyroscope remains in a fixed position in the plane in which it is spinning. By mounting this wheel, or gyroscope, on a set of gimbal rings, the gyro is able to rotate freely in any direction. Thus, if the gimbal rings are tilted twisted, or otherwise moved, the gyro remain in the plane in which it was originally spinning.

PRECESSION
Precession is the tilting or turning of a gyro in response to a deflective force. The reaction to this force does not occur at the point where it was applied; rather, it occurs at a point that is 90° later in the direction of rotation.

This principle allows the gyro to determine a rate of turn by sensing the amount of pressure created by a change in direction. The rate at which the gyro processes is inversely proportional to the speed of the rotor and proportional to the deflective force. Precession can also create some minor errors in some instruments.

BLOCKAGE OF THE PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

Errors almost always indicate blockage of the pitot tube, the static port(s), or both. Blockage may be caused by moisture (including ice), dirt, or even insects. During preflight, make sure the pitot tube cover is removed. Then, check the pitot and static port openings. A blocked pitot tube affects the accuracy of only the airspeed indicator.

However, a blockage of the static system not only affects the airspeed indicator, but can also cause errors in the altimeter and vertical speed indicator.

BLOCKED PITOT SYSTEM
The pitot system can become blocked completely or only partially if the pitot tube drain hole remains open.

If the pitot tube becomes blocked and its associated drain hole remains clear, ram air no longer is able to enter the pitot system. Air already in the system will vent through the drain hole, and the remaining pressure will drop to ambient (outside) air pressure. Under these circumstances, the airspeed indicator reading decreases to zero, because the airspeed indicator senses no difference between ram and static air pressure. The airspeed indicator acts as if the airplane were stationary on the ramp. The apparent loss of airspeed is not usually instantaneous. Instead, the airspeed will drop toward zero.

If the pitot tube, drain hole, and static system all become blocked in flight, changes in airspeed will not be indicated, due to the trapped pressures. However, if the static system remains clear, the airspeed indicator acts as an altimeter. An apparent increase in the ram air pressure relative to static pressure occurs as altitude increases above the level where the pitot tube and drain hole became blocked. This pressure differential causes the airspeed indicator to show an increase in speed. A decrease in indicated airspeed occurs as the airplane descends below the altitude at which the pitot system became blocked.

The pitot tube may become blocked during flight through visible moisture. Some airplanes may be equipped with pitot heat for flight in visible moisture.

Consult the AFM or POH for specific procedures regarding the use of pitot heat.

BLOCKED STATIC SYSTEM
If the static system becomes blocked but the pitot tube remains clear, the airspeed indicator continues to operate; however, it is inaccurate. Airspeed indications are slower than the actual speed when the airplane is operated above the altitude where the static ports became blocked, because the trapped static pressure is higher than normal for that altitude. When operating at a lower altitude, a faster than actual airspeed is displayed due to the relatively low static pressure trapped in the system.

A blockage of the static system also affects the altimeter and VSI. Trapped static pressure causes the altimeter to freeze at the altitude where the blockage occurred. In the case of the VSI, a blocked static system produces a continuous zero indication.

OTHER AIRSPEED LIMITATIONS

Some important airspeed limitations are not marked on the face of the airspeed indicator, but are found on placards and in the AFM or POH. These airspeeds include:

• Design maneuvering speed (VA)—This is the "rough air" speed and the maximum speed for abrupt maneuvers. If during flight, rough air or severe turbulence is encountered, reduce the airspeed to maneuvering speed or less to minimize stress on the airplane structure. It is important to consider weight when referencing this speed. For example, VA may be 100 knots when an airplane is heavily loaded, but only 90 knots when the load is light.
• Landing gear operating speed (VLO)—The maximum speed for extending or retracting the landing gear if using an airplane equipped with retractable landing gear.
• Landing gear extended speed (VLE)—The maximum speed at which an airplane can be safely flown with the landing gear extended.
• Best angle-of-climb speed (VX)—The airspeed at which an airplane gains the greatest amount of altitude in a given distance. It is used during a short-field takeoff to clear an obstacle.
• Best rate-of-climb speed (VY)—This airspeed provides the most altitude gain in a given period of time.
• Minimum control speed (VMC)—This is the minimum flight speed at which a light, twin-engine airplane can be satisfactorily controlled when an engine suddenly becomes inoperative and the remaining engine is at takeoff power.
• Best rate of climb with one engine inoperative (VYSE)—This airspeed provides the most altitude gain in a given period of time in a light, twin engine airplane following an engine failure.

Instrument Check—Prior to takeoff, the airspeed indicator should read zero. However, if there is a strong wind blowing directly into the pitot tube, the airspeed indicator may read higher than zero. When beginning the takeoff, make sure the airspeed is increasing at an appropriate rate.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR MARKING

Airplanes weighing 12,500 pounds or less, manufactured after 1945, and certificate by the FAA, are required to have airspeed indicators marked in accordance with a standard color-coded marking system. This system of color-coded marking enables a pilot to determine at a glance certain airspeed limitations that are important to the safe operation of the airplane. For example, if during the execution of a maneuver, it is noted that the airspeed needle is in the yellow arc and rapidly approaching the red line, the immediate reaction should be to reduce airspeed.

Airspeed indicators on single engine small airplanes include the following standard color-coded marking:

• White arc—This arc is commonly referred to as the flap operating range since its lower limit represents the full flap stall speed and its upper limit provides the maximum flap speed. Approaches and landings are usually flown at speeds within the white arc.
• Lower limit of white arc (VS0)—The stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration. In small airplanes, this is the power-off stall speed at the maximum landing weight in the landing configuration (gear and flaps down).
• Upper limit of the white arc (VFE)—The maximum speed with the flaps extended.
• Green arc—This is the normal operating range of the airplane. Most flying occurs within this range.
• Lower limit of green arc (VS1)—The stalling speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specified configuration. For most airplanes, this is the power-off stall speed at the maximum takeoff weight in the clean configuration (gear up, if retractable, and flaps up).
• Upper limit of green arc (VNO)—The maximum structural cruising speed. Do not exceed this speed except in smooth air.
• Yellow arc—Caution range. Fly within this range only in smooth air, and then, only with caution.
• Red line (VNE)—Never-exceed speed. Operating above this speed is prohibited since it may result in damage or structural failure.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR

The airspeed indicator is a sensitive, differential pressure gauge which measures and shows promptly the difference between pitot or impact pressure, and static pressure, the undisturbed atmospheric pressure at level flight. These two pressures will be equal when the airplane is parked on the ground in calm air. When the airplane moves through the air, the pressure on the pitot line becomes greater than the pressure in the static lines. This difference in pressure is registered by the airspeed pointer on the face of the instrument, which is calibrated in miles per hour, knots, or both.

Pilots should understand the following speeds:

Indicated Airspeed (IAS)—The direct instrument reading obtained from the airspeed indicator, uncorrected for variations in atmospheric density, installation error, or instrument error.

Manufacturers use this airspeed as the basis for determining airplane performance. Takeoff, landing, and stall speeds listed in the AFM or POH are indicated airspeeds and do not normally vary with altitude or temperature.

Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)—Indicated airspeed corrected for installation error and instrument error.
Although manufacturers attempt to keep airspeed errors to a minimum, it is not possible to eliminate all errors throughout the airspeed operating range. At certain airspeeds and with certain flap settings, the installation and instrument errors may total several knots. This error is generally greatest at low airspeeds.

In the cruising and higher airspeed ranges, indicated airspeed and calibrated airspeed are approximately the same. Refer to the airspeed calibration chart to correct for possible airspeed errors.

True Airspeed (TAS)—Calibrated airspeed corrected for altitude and nonstandard temperature. Because air density decreases with an increase in altitude, an airplane has to be flown faster at higher altitudes to cause the same pressure difference between pitot impact pressure and static pressure. Therefore, for a given calibrated airspeed, true airspeed increases as altitude increases; or for a given true airspeed, calibrated airspeed decreases as altitude increases.

A pilot can find true airspeed by two methods. The most accurate method is to use a flight computer. With this method, the calibrated airspeed is corrected for temperature and pressure variation by using the airspeed correction scale on the computer. Extremely accurate electronic flight computers are also available. Just enter the CAS, pressure altitude, and temperature and the computer calculates the true airspeed.

A second method, which is a "rule of thumb," will provide the approximate true airspeed. Simply add 2 percent to the calibrated airspeed for each 1,000 feet of altitude.

Groundspeed (GS)—The actual speed of the airplane over the ground. It is true airspeed adjusted for wind. Groundspeed decreases with a headwind, and increases with a tailwind.

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

The vertical speed indicator (VSI), which is sometimes called a vertical velocity indicator (VVI), indicates whether the airplane is climbing, descending, or in level flight. The rate of climb or descent is indicated in feet per minute. If properly calibrated, the VSI indicates zero in level flight.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Although the vertical speed indicator operates solely from static pressure, it is a differential pressure instrument. It contains a diaphragm with connecting linkage and gearing to the indicator pointer inside an airtight case. The inside of the diaphragm is connected directly to the static line of the pitot-static system.

The area outside the diaphragm, which is inside the instrument case, is also connected to the static line, but through a restricted orifice (calibrated leak). Both the diaphragm and the case receive air from the static line at existing atmospheric pressure. When the airplane is on the ground or in level flight, the pressures inside the diaphragm and the instrument case remain the same and the pointer is at the zero indication. When the airplane climbs or descends, the pressure inside the diaphragm changes immediately, but due to the metering action of the restricted passage, the case pressure remains higher or lower for a short time, causing the diaphragm to contract or expand. This causes a pressure differential that is indicated on the instrument needle as a climb or descent. When the pressure differential stabilizes at a definite ratio, the needle indicates the rate of altitude change.

The vertical speed indicator is capable of displaying two different types of information:

• Trend information shows an immediate indication of an increase or decrease in the airplane's rate of climb or descent.
  
• Rate information shows a stabilized rate of change in altitude.

For example, if maintaining a steady 500-foot per minute (f.p.m.) climb, and the nose is lowered slightly, the VSI immediately senses this change and indicates a decrease in the rate of climb. This first indication is called the trend. After a short time, the VSI needle stabilizes on the new rate of climb, which in this example, is something less than 500 f.p.m. The time from the initial change in the rate of climb, until the VSI displays an accurate indication of the new rate, is called the lag. Rough control technique and turbulence can extend the lag period and cause erratic and unstable rate indications. Some airplanes are equipped with an instantaneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI), which incorporates accelerometers to compensate for the lag in the typical VSI. Instrument Check—To verify proper operation, make sure the VSI is indicating near zero prior to takeoff. After takeoff, it should indicate a positive rate of climb.

TYPES OF ALTITUDE

Altitude is vertical distance above some point or level used as a reference. There are as many kinds of altitude as there are reference levels from which altitude is measured, and each may be used for specific reasons.

Pilots are mainly concerned with five types of altitudes:

1. Indicated Altitude—That altitude read directly from the altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set to the current altimeter setting.
2. True Altitude—The vertical distance of the airplane above sea level—the actual altitude. It is often expressed as feet above mean sea level (MSL). Airport, terrain, and obstacle elevations on aeronautical charts are true altitudes.
3. Absolute Altitude—The vertical distance of an airplane above the terrain, or above ground level (AGL).
4. Pressure Altitude—The altitude indicated when the altimeter setting window (barometric scale) is adjusted to 29.92. This is the altitude above the standard datum plane, which is a theoretical plane where air pressure  (corrected to 15°C) equals 29.92 in. Hg. Pressure altitude is used to compute density altitude, true altitude, true airspeed, and other performance data.
5. Density Altitude—This altitude is pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard temperature.

When conditions are standard, pressure altitude and density altitude are the same. If the temperature is above standard, the density altitude is higher than pressure altitude. If the temperature is below standard, the density altitude is lower than pressure altitude. This is an important altitude because it is directly related to the airplane's performance.

As an example, consider an airport with a field elevation of 5,048 feet MSL where the standard temperature is 5°C. Under these conditions, pressure altitude and density altitude are the same—5,048 feet. If the temperature changes to 30°C, the density altitude increases to 7,855 feet. This means an airplane would perform on takeoff as though the field elevation were 7,855 feet at standard temperature. Conversely, a temperature of -25°C would result in a density altitude of 1,232 feet. An airplane would have much better performance under these conditions.

Instrument Check—To determine the condition of an altimeter, set the barometric scale to the altimeter setting transmitted by the local automated flight service station (AFSS) or any other reliable source. The altimeter pointers should indicate the surveyed elevation of the airport. If the indication is off more than 75 feet from the surveyed elevation, the instrument should be referred to a certificate instrument repair station for re-calibration.

ALTIMETER OPERATION

There are two means by which the altimeter pointers can be moved. The first is a change in air pressure, while the other is an adjustment to the barometric scale. When the airplane climbs or descends, changing pressure within the altimeter case expands or contracts the aneroid barometer. This movement is transmitted through mechanical linkage to rotate the pointers. A decrease in pressure causes the altimeter to indicate an increase in altitude, and an increase in pressure causes the altimeter to indicate a decrease in altitude.

Accordingly, if the airplane is flown from a pressure level of 28.75 in. Hg. to a pressure level of 29.75 in. Hg., the altimeter would show a decrease of approximately 1,000 feet in altitude.

The other method of moving the pointers does not rely on changing air pressure, but the mechanical construction of the altimeter. Do not be confused by the fact that as the barometric pressure scale is moved, the indicator needles move in the same direction, which is opposite to the reaction the pointers have when air pressure changes. To illustrate this point, suppose the pilot lands at an airport with an elevation of 1,000 feet and the altimeter is correctly set to the current sea level pressure of 30.00 in. Hg. While the airplane is parked on the ramp, the pressure decreases to 29.50. The altimeter senses this as a climb and now indicates 1,500 feet.

When returning to the airplane, if the setting in the altimeter window is decreased to the current sea level pressure of 29.50, the indication will be reduced back down to 1,000 feet.

Knowing the airplane's altitude is vitally important to a pilot. The pilot must be sure that the airplane is flying high enough to clear the highest terrain or obstruction along the intended route. It is especially important to have accurate altitude information when visibility is restricted. To clear obstructions, the pilot must constantly be aware of the altitude of the airplane and the elevation of the surrounding terrain. To reduce the possibility of a midair collision, it is essential to maintain altitude in accordance with air traffic rules.

SETTING THE ALTIMETER

Most altimeters are equipped with a barometric pressure setting window (sometimes referred to as the Kollsman window) providing a means to adjust the altimeter. A knob is located at the bottom of the instrument for this adjustment.

To adjust the altimeter for variation in atmospheric pressure, the pressure scale in the altimeter setting window, calibrated in inches of mercury (in. Hg) and/or millibars (Mb), is adjusted to match the given altimeter setting. Altimeter setting is defined as station pressure reduced to sea level. However, an altimeter setting is accurate only in the vicinity of the reporting station.

Therefore, the altimeter must be adjusted as the flight progresses from one station to the next.

Many pilots confidently expect that the current altimeter setting will compensate for irregularities in atmospheric pressure at all altitudes, but this is not always true. The altimeter setting broadcast by ground stations is the station pressure corrected to mean sea level. It does not account for the irregularities at higher levels, particularly the effect of nonstandard temperature. However, if each pilot in a given area is using the same altimeter setting, each altimeter should be equally affected by temperature and pressure variation errors, making it possible to maintain the desired vertical separation between aircraft.

When flying over high, mountainous terrain, certain atmospheric conditions can cause the altimeter to indicate an altitude of 1,000 feet, or more, HIGHER than the actual altitude. For this reason, a generous margin of altitude should be allowed—not only for possible altimeter error, but also for possible downdrafts that might be associated with high winds.

To illustrate the use of the altimeter setting system, follow a flight from Dallas Love Field, Texas to Abilene Municipal Airport, Texas via Mineral Wells.

Before taking off from Love Field, the pilot receives a current altimeter setting of 29.85 from the control tower or automatic terminal information service (ATIS), and sets this value in the altimeter setting window. The altimeter indication should then be compared with the known airport elevation of 487 feet. Since most altimeters are not perfectly calibrated, an error may exist.

When over Mineral Wells, assume the pilot receives a current altimeter setting of 29.94 and sets this in the altimeter window. Before entering the traffic pattern at Abilene Municipal Airport, a new altimeter setting of 29.69 is received from the Abilene Control Tower, and set in the altimeter setting window. If the pilot desires to fly the traffic pattern at approximately 800 feet above the terrain, and the field elevation of Abilene is 1,791 feet, an indicated altitude of 2,600 feet should be maintained (1,791 feet + 800 feet = 2,591 feet rounded to 2,600 feet).

The importance of properly setting the altimeter cannot be overemphasized. Assume that the pilot did not adjust the altimeter at Abilene to the current setting, and continued using the Mineral Wells setting of 29.94. When entering the Abilene traffic pattern at an indicated altitude of 2,600 feet, the airplane would be approximately 250 feet below the proper traffic pattern altitude. Upon landing, the altimeter would indicate approximately 250 feet higher than the field elevation.

Altimeter setting 29.94 Current altimeter setting 29.69 Difference .25 (Since 1 inch of pressure is equal to approximately 1,000 feet of altitude, .25 _ 1,000 feet = 250 feet.)

When determining whether to add or subtract the amount of altimeter error, remember that, when the actual pressure is lower than what is set in the altimeter window, the actual altitude of the airplane will be lower than what is indicated on the altimeter.

EFFECT OF NONSTANDARD PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

If no means were provided for adjusting altimeters to nonstandard pressure, flight could be hazardous. For example, if flying from a high-pressure area to a low-pressure area without adjusting the altimeter, the actual altitude of the airplane would be LOWER than the indicated altitude. An old saying, "HIGH TO LOW, LOOK OUT BELOW" is a way of remembering which condition is dangerous. When flying from a low-pressure area to a high-pressure area without adjusting the altimeter, the actual altitude of the airplane is HIGHER than the indicated altitude.

On a warm day, a given mass of air expands to a larger volume than on a cold day, raising the pressure levels. For example, the pressure level where the altimeter indicates 5,000 feet is HIGHER on a warm day than under standard conditions. On a cold day, the reverse is true, and the pressure level where the altimeter indicates 5,000 feet is LOWER.

The adjustment to compensate for nonstandard pressure does not compensate for nonstandard temperature.

If terrain or obstacle clearance is a factor in selecting a cruising altitude, particularly at higher altitudes, remember to anticipate that a colder-than-standard temperature places the airplane LOWER than the altimeter indicates. Therefore, it is necessary to use a higher indicated altitude to provide adequate terrain clearance. Modify the memory aid to "HIGH TO LOW OR HOT TO COLD, LOOK OUT BELOW."