AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : ILS (INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM) - JETSTREAM

ILS (INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM) A precision instrument approach system, which normally consists of the following electronic components and visual aids—localizer, glide slope, outer marker, and approach lights.

INCLINOMETER—An instrument consisting of a curved glass tube, housing a glass ball, and damped with a fluid similar to kerosene. It may be used to indicate inclination, as a level, or, as used in the turn indicators, to show the relationship between gravity and centrifugal force in a turn.

INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS)— The direct instrument reading obtained from the airspeed indicator, uncorrected for variations in atmospheric density, installation error, or instrument error. Manufacturers use this airspeed as the basis for determining airplane performance. Takeoff, landing, and stall speeds listed in the AFM or POH are indicated airspeeds and do not normally vary with altitude or temperature.

INDICATED ALTITUDE — The altitude read directly from the altimeter (uncorrected) when it is set to the current altimeter setting.

INDUCED DRAG—That part of total drag which is created by the production of lift. Induced drag increases with a decrease in airspeed.

INTERCOOLER—A device used to reduce the temperatures of the compressed air before it enters the fuel metering device. The resulting cooler air has a higher density, which permits the engine to be operated with a higher power setting.

INTERPOLATION—The estimation of an intermediate value of a quantity that falls between marked values in a series. Example: In a measurement of length, with a rule that is marked in 1/8's of an inch, the value falls between 3/8 inch and 1/2 inch. The estimated (interpolated) value might then be said to be 7/16 inch.

INVERSION—An increase in temperature with altitude.

ISA (INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE)—Standard atmospheric conditions consisting of a temperature of 59F (15C), and a barometric pressure of 29.92 in. Hg. (1013.2 mb) at sea level. ISA values can be calculated for various altitudes using a standard lapse rate of approximately 2ºC per 1,000 feet.

ISOBARS—Lines which connect points of equal barometric pressure.

ISOGONIC LINES—Lines on charts that connect points of equal magnetic variation.

JETSTREAM—A narrow band of wind with speeds of 100 to 200 m.p.h. usually co-located with the tropopause.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : HOT START - IFR (INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES)

HOT START—In gas turbine engines, a start which occurs with normal engine rotation, but exhaust temperature exceeds prescribed limits. This is usually caused by an excessively rich mixture in the combustor. The fuel to the engine must be terminated immediately to prevent engine damage.

HUMAN FACTORS—The study of how people interact with their environments. In the case of general aviation, it is the study of how pilot performance is influenced by such issues as the design of cockpits, the function of the organs of the body, the effects of emotions, and the interaction and communication with the other participants of the aviation community, such as other crewmembers and air traffic control personnel.

HUNG START��In gas turbine engines, a condition of normal light off but with r.p.m. remaining at some low value rather than increasing to the normal idle r.p.m. This is often the result of insufficient power to the engine from the starter. In the event of a hung start, the engine should be shut down.

HYDROPLANING—A condition that exists when landing on a surface with standing water deeper than the tread depth of the tires. When the brakes are applied, there is a possibility that the brake will lock up and the tire will ride on the surface of the water, much like a water ski. When the tires are hydroplaning, directional control and braking action are virtually impossible. An effective anti-skid system can minimize the effects of hydroplaning.

HYPEMIC HYPOXIA—A type of hypoxia that is a result of oxygen deficiency in the blood, rather than a lack of inhaled oxygen. It can be caused by a variety of factors. Hypemic means "not enough blood."

HYPERVENTILATION—Occurs when an individual is experiencing emotional stress, fright, or pain, and the breathing rate and depth increase, although the carbon dioxide level in the blood is already at a reduced level. The result is an excessive loss of carbon dioxide from the body, which can lead to unconsciousness due to the respiratory system's overriding mechanism to regain control of breathing.

HYPOXIA—Hypoxia means "reduced oxygen" or "not enough oxygen." Hypoxia can be caused by several factors including an insufficient supply of oxygen, inadequate transportation of oxygen, or the inability of the body tissues to use oxygen.

HYPOXIC HYPOXIA—This type of hypoxia is a result of insufficient oxygen available to the lungs. A decrease of oxygen molecules at sufficient pressure can lead to hypoxic hypoxia.

IFR (INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES)� Rules that govern the procedure for conducting flight in weather conditions below VFR weather minimums. The term IFR also is used to define weather conditions and the type of flight plan under which an aircraft is operating.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : FROST - HORSEPOWER

FROST—Ice crystal deposits formed by sublimation when temperature and dew point are below freezing.

FUEL LOAD—The expendable part of the load of the airplane. It includes only usable fuel, not fuel required to fill the lines or that which remains trapped in the tank sumps.

FUSELAGE—The section of the airplane that consists of the cabin and/or cockpit, containing seats for the occupants and the controls for the airplane.

GIMBAL RING—A type of support that allows an object, such as a gyroscope, to remain in an upright condition when its base is tilted.

GPS (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM).A satellite-based radio positioning, navigation, and time transfer system.

GROUND ADJUSTABLE TRIM TAB—Non-movable metal trim tab on a control surface. Bent in one direction or another while on the ground to apply trim forces to the control surface.

GROUND EFFECT—The condition of slightly increased air pressure below an airplane wing or helicopter rotor system that increases the amount of lift produced. It exists within approximately one wing span or one rotor diameter from the ground. It results from a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices, and provides a corresponding decrease in induced drag.

GROUNDSPEED (GS)—The actual speed of the airplane over the ground. It is true airspeed adjusted for wind. Groundspeed decreases with a headwind, and increases with a tailwind.

GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION— An inherent quality of rotating bodies, which causes an applied force to be manifested 90º in the direction of rotation from the point where the force is applied.

HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES— These can lead to poor decision making and actions that involve unnecessary risk. Pilots must examine decisions carefully to ensure they have not been influenced by hazardous attitudes.

HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORY SERVICE (HIWAS) — Continuous recorded hazardous inflight weather forecasts broadcasted to airborne pilots over selected VOR outlets defined as an HIWAS Broadcast Area.

HEADING—The direction in which the nose of the aircraft is pointing during flight.

HEADING INDICATOR — An instrument which senses airplane movement and displays heading based on a 360º azimuth, with the final zero omitted. The heading indicator, also called a directional gyro (DG), is fundamentally a mechanical instrument designed to facilitate the use of the magnetic compass. The heading indicator is not affected by the forces that make the magnetic compass difficult to interpret.

HEADWORK — Required to accomplish a conscious, rational thought process when making decisions.
Good decision making involves risk identification and assessment, information processing, and problem solving.

HIGH PERFORMANCE AIRCRAFT—An aircraft with an engine of more than 200 horsepower.

HISTOTOXIC HYPOXIA — The inability of the cells to effectively use oxygen. Plenty of oxygen is being transported to the cells that need it, but they are unable to make use of it.

HORSEPOWER—The term, originated by inventor James Watt, means the amount of work a horse could do in one second. One horsepower equals 550 foot-pounds per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY SERVICE (EFAS) - FRONT

EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY SERVICE (EFAS)—A service specifically designed to provide, upon pilot request, timely weather information pertinent to the type of flight, intended route of flight and altitude. The FSSs providing this service are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory. Also known as Flight Watch.

EQUILIBRIUM—A condition that exists within a body when the sum of the moments of all of the forces acting on the body is equal to zero. In aerodynamics, equilibrium is when all opposing forces acting on an aircraft are balanced (steady, unaccelerated flight conditions).

EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED—The airspeed indicator reading corrected for position (or installation), or instrument error, and for adiabatic compressible flow for the particular altitude. (EAS is equal to CAS at sea level in standard atmosphere.)

EVAPORATION—The transformation of a liquid to a gaseous state, such as the change of water to water vapor.

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE (EGT)—The temperature of the exhaust gases as they leave the cylinders of a reciprocating engine or the turbine section of a turbine engine.

EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION—A change in cabin pressure faster than the lungs can decompress. Lung damage is possible.

FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS— Propellers with fixed blade angles. Fixed-pitch propellers are designed as climb propellers, cruise propellers, or standard propellers.

FIXED SLOT—A fixed, nozzle shaped opening near the leading edge of a wing that ducts air onto the top surface of the wing. Its purpose is to increase lift at higher angles of attack.

FLAMEOUT—A condition in the operation of a gas turbine engine in which the fire in the engine goes out due to either too much or too little fuel sprayed into the combustors.

FLAPS—Hinged portion of the trailing edge between the ailerons and fuselage. In some aircraft ailerons and flaps are interconnected to produce full-span "flaperons." In either case, flaps change the lift and drag on the wing.

FLOOR LOAD LIMIT—The maximum weight the floor can sustain per square inch/foot as provided by the manufacturer.

FOG—Cloud consisting of numerous minute water droplets and based at the surface; droplets are small enough to be suspended in the earth's atmosphere indefinitely. (Unlike drizzle, it does not fall to the surface; differs from cloud only in that a cloud is not based at the surface; distinguished from haze by its wetness and gray color.)

FORCE (F)—The energy applied to an object that attempts to cause the object to change its direction, speed, or motion. In aerodynamics, it is expressed as F, T (thrust), L (lift), W (weight), or D (drag), usually in pounds.

FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE (FOD).Damage to a gas turbine engine caused by some object being sucked into the engine while it is running. Debris from runways or taxiways can cause foreign object damage during ground operations, and the ingestion of ice and birds can cause FOD in flight.

FRISE-TYPE AILERON—Aileron having the nose portion projecting ahead of the hinge line. When the trailing edge of the aileron moves up, the nose projects below the wing's lower surface and produces some parasite drag, decreasing the amount of adverse yaw.

FRONT—The boundary between two different air masses.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : DIHEDRAL - ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO (EPR)

DIHEDRAL—The positive acute angle between the lateral axis of an airplane and a line through the center of a wing or horizontal stabilizer. Dihedral contributes to the lateral stability of an airplane.

DILUTER-DEMAND OXYGEN SYSTEM—An oxygen system that delivers oxygen mixed or diluted with air in order to maintain a constant oxygen partial pressure as the altitude changes.

DIRECT USER ACCESS TERMINAL SERVICE (DUATS)—A computer based program providing NWS and FAA weather products that are normally used in pilot weather briefings.

DIRECTIONAL STABILITY— Stability about the vertical axis of an aircraft, whereby an aircraft tends to return, on its own, to flight aligned with the relative wind when disturbed from that equilibrium state. The vertical tail is the primary contributor to directional stability, causing an airplane in flight to align with the relative wind.

DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)—Equipment (airborne and ground) to measure, in nautical miles, the slant range distance of an aircraft from the DME navigation aid.

DRAG—An aerodynamic force on a body acting parallel and opposite to the relative wind. The resistance of the atmosphere to the relative motion of an aircraft. Drag opposes thrust and limits the speed of the airplane.

DRIFT ANGLE—Angle between heading and track.

DUATS — See DIRECT USER ACCESS TERMINAL SERVICE.

DUTCH ROLL—A combination of rolling and yawing oscillations that normally occurs when the dihedral effects of an aircraft are more powerful than the directional stability. Usually dynamically stable but objectionable in an airplane because of the oscillatory nature.

DYNAMIC HYDROPLANING—A condition that exists when landing on a surface with standing water deeper than the tread depth of the tires. When the brakes are applied, there is a possibility that the brake will lock up and the tire will ride on the surface of the water, much like a water ski. When the tires are hydroplaning, directional control and braking action are virtually impossible. An effective anti-skid system can minimize the effects of hydroplaning.

DYNAMIC STABILITY — The property of an aircraft that causes it, when disturbed from straight and level flight, to develop forces or moments that restore the original condition of straight and level.

EDDY CURRENT DAMPING— The decreased amplitude of oscillations by the interaction of magnetic fields. In the case of a vertical card magnetic compass, flux from the oscillating permanent magnet produces eddy currents in a damping disk or cup. The magnetic flux produced by the eddy currents opposes the flux from the permanent magnet and decreases the oscillations.

ELEVATOR—The horizontal, movable primary control surface in the tail section, or empennage, of an airplane. The elevator is hinged to the trailing edge of the fixed horizontal stabilizer.

EMPENNAGE—The section of the airplane that consists of the vertical stabilizer, the horizontal stabilizer, and the associated control surfaces.

EMPTY-FIELD MYOPIA— Induced-near-sightedness that is associated with flying at night, in instrument meteorological conditions and/or reduced visibility. With nothing to focus on, the eyes automatically focus on a point just slightly ahead of the airplane.

ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO (EPR)—The ratio of turbine discharge pressure divided by compressor inlet pressure, which is used as an indication of the amount of thrust being developed by a turbine engine.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : CRITICAL ALTITUDE - DEAD RECKONING

CRITICAL ALTITUDE — The maximum altitude under standard atmospheric conditions at which a turbocharged engine can produce its rated horsepower.

CRITICAL ANGLE OF ATTACK—The angle of attack at which a wing stalls regardless of airspeed, flight attitude, or weight.

DATUM (REFERENCE DATUM)—An imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measurements of arm are taken. The datum is established by the manufacturer. Once the datum has been selected, all moment arms and the location of CG range are measured from this point.

DEAD RECKONING—Navigation of an airplane solely by means of computations based on airspeed, course, heading, wind direction, and speed, groundspeed, and elapsed time.

DECELERATION ERROR—Fluctuation of the magnetic compass during acceleration. In the Northern Hemisphere, the compass swings toward the south during deceleration.

DELTA—AGreek letter expressed by the symbol . to indicate a change of values. As an example, .CG indicates a change (or movement) of the CG.

DENSITY ALTITUDE—This altitude is pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard temperature. When conditions are standard, pressure altitude and density altitude are the same. If the temperature is above standard, the density altitude is higher than pressure altitude. If the temperature is below standard, the density altitude is lower than pressure altitude. This is an important altitude because it is directly related to the airplane's performance.

DEPOSITION.The direct transformation of a gas to a solid state, in which the liquid state is bypassed. Some sources use sublimation to describe this process instead of deposition.

DETONATION — The sudden release of heat energy from fuel in an aircraft engine caused by the fuel-air mixture reaching its critical pressure and temperature. Detonation occurs as a violent explosion rather than a smooth burning process.

DEVIATION — A compass error caused by magnetic disturbances from electrical and metal components in the airplane. The correction for this error is displayed on a compass correction card placed near the magnetic compass in the airplane.

DEW—Moisture that has condensed from water vapor. Usually found on cooler objects near the ground, such as grass, as the near-surface layer of air cools faster than the layers of air above it.

DEWPOINT—The temperature at which air reaches a state where it can hold no more water.

DIFFERENTIAL AILERONS — Control surface rigged such that the aileron moving up moves a greater distance than the aileron moving down. The up aileron produces extra parasite drag to compensate for the additional induced drag caused by the down aileron. This balancing of the drag forces helps minimize adverse yaw.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE—A difference between two pressures. The measurement of airspeed is an example of the use of differential pressure.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : CABIN ALTITUDE - CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM)

CABIN ALTITUDE—Cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above sea level.

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED (CAS)—Indicated airspeed corrected for installation error and instrument error. Although manufacturers attempt to keep airspeed errors to a minimum, it is not possible to eliminate all errors throughout the airspeed operating range. At certain airspeeds and with certain flap settings, the installation and instrument errors may total several knots. This error is generally greatest at low airspeeds. In the cruising and higher airspeed ranges, indicated airspeed and calibrated airspeed are approximately the same. Refer to the airspeed calibration chart to correct for possible airspeed errors.

CAMBER—The camber of an airfoil is the characteristic curve of its upper and lower surfaces. The upper camber is more pronounced, while the lower camber is comparatively flat. This causes the velocity of the airflow immediately above the wing to be much higher than that below the wing.

CANARD—A horizontal surface mounted ahead of the main wing to provide longitudinal stability and control. It may be a fixed, movable, or variable geometry surface, with or without control surfaces.

CANARD CONFIGURATION—A configuration in which the span of the forward wings is substantially less than that of the main wing.

CANTILEVER—A wing designed to carry the loads without external struts.

CEILING—The height above the earth's surface of the lowest layer of clouds, which is reported as broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility into an obscuration.

CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)— The point at which an airplane would balance if it were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the airplane, or the theoretical point at which the entire weight of the airplane is assumed to be concentrated. It may be expressed in inches from the reference datum, or in percent of mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). The location depends on the distribution of weight in the airplane.

CENTER-OF-GRAVITY LIMITS—The specified forward and aft points within which the CG must be located during flight. These limits are indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.

CENTER-OF-GRAVITY RANGE—The distance between the forward and aft CG limits indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.

CENTER OF PRESSURE—A point along the wing chord line where lift is considered to be concentrated. For this reason, the center of pressure is commonly referred to as the center of lift.

CENTRIFUGAL FLOW COMPRESSOR.An impeller shaped device that receives air at its center and slings the air outward at high velocity into a diffuser for increased pressure. Also referred to as a radial outflow compressor.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE — An outward force, that opposes centripetal force, resulting from the effect of inertia during a turn.

CENTRIPETAL FORCE—A center-seeking force directed inward toward the center of rotation created by the horizontal component of lift in turning flight.

CHORD LINE—An imaginary straight line drawn through an airfoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge.

COEFFICIENT OF LIFT—The ratio between lift pressure and dynamic pressure.

COLD FRONT—The boundary between two air masses where cold air is replacing warm air.

COMPLEX AIRCRAFT—An aircraft with retractable landing gear, flaps, and a controllablepitch propeller.

COMPRESSOR PRESSURE RATIO—The ratio of compressor discharge pressure to compressor inlet pressure.

COMPRESSOR STALL—In gas turbine engines, a condition in an axial-flow compressor in which one or more stages of rotor blades fail to pass air smoothly to the succeeding stages. A stall condition is caused by a pressure ratio that is incompatible with the engine r.p.m. Compressor stall will be indicated by a rise in exhaust temperature or r.p.m. fluctuation, and if allowed to continue, may result in flameout and physical damage to the engine.

CONDENSATION.A change of state of water from a gas (water vapor) to a liquid.

CONDENSATION NUCLEI—Small particles of solid matter in the air on which water vapor condenses.

CONFIGURATION—This is a general term, which normally refers to the position of the landing gear and flaps.

CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER—A controllable-pitch propeller whose pitch is automatically varied in flight by a governor to maintain a constant r.p.m. in spite of varying air loads.

CONTINUOUS FLOW OXYGEN SYSTEM—System that supplies a constant supply of pure oxygen to a rebreathes bag that dilutes the pure oxygen with exhaled gases and thus supplies a healthy mix of oxygen and ambient air to the mask. Primarily used in passenger cabins of commercial airliners.

CONTROLLABILITY—A measure of the response of an aircraft relative to the pilot's flight control inputs.

CONTROLLED AIRPORT—An airport that has an operating control tower.

CONTROLLED AIRSPACE—A generic term that covers the different classifications of airspace and defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification. Controlled airspace consists of Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace.

CONVECTIVE SIGMET—A weather advisory concerning convective weather significant to the safety of all aircraft. Convective SIGMETs are issued for tornadoes, lines of thunderstorms, thunderstorms over a wide area, embedded thunderstorms, wind gusts to 50 knots or greater, and/or hail 3/4 inch in diameter or greater.

CONVENTIONAL LANDING GEAR—Landing gear employing a third rear-mounted wheel. These airplanes are also sometimes referred to as tailwheel airplanes.

COUPLED AILERONS AND RUDDER—Rudder and ailerons are connected with interconnect springs in order to counteract adverse yaw. Can be overridden if it becomes necessary to slip the aircraft.

COURSE—The intended direction of flight in the horizontal plane measured in degrees from north.

COWL FLAPS — Shutter-like devices arranged around certain air-cooled engine cowlings, which may be opened or closed to regulate the flow of air around the engine.

CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM)—The application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment. It was initially known as cockpit resource management, but as CRM programs evolved to include cabin crews, maintenance personnel, and others, the phrase "crew resource management" was adopted. This includes single pilots, as in most general aviation aircraft. Pilots of small aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft, must make effective use of all available resources; human resources, hardware, and information. A current definition includes all groups routinely working with the cockpit crew who are involved in decisions required to operate a flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: pilots, dispatchers, cabin crewmembers, maintenance personnel, and air traffic controllers. CRM is one way of addressing the challenge of optimizing the human/machine interface and accompanying interpersonal activities.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : ATTITUDE MANAGEMENT - BYPASS RATIO

ATTITUDE MANAGEMENT— The ability to recognize hazardous attitudes in oneself and the willingness to modify them as necessary through the application of an appropriate antidote thought.

AUTOKINESIS—This is caused by staring at a single point of light against a dark background for more than a few seconds. After a few moments, the light appears to move on its own.

AUTOMATED SURFACE OBSERVATION SYSTEM (ASOS). Weather reporting system which provides surface observations every minute via digitized voice broadcasts and printed reports.

AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVING SYSTEM (AWOS) . Automated weather reporting system consisting of various sensors, a processor, a computer generated voice subsystem, and a transmitter to broadcast weather data.

AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)—An aircraft radio navigation system which senses and indicates the direction to an L/MF nondirectional radio beacon (NDB) ground transmitter. Direction is indicated to the pilot as a magnetic bearing or as a relative bearing to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft depending on the type of indicator installed in the aircraft. In certain applications, such as military, ADF operations may be based on airborne and ground transmitters in the VHF/UHF frequency spectrum.

AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE (ATIS)—The continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in selected terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by automating the repetitive transmission of essential but routine information.

AUTOPILOT—An automatic flight control system which keeps an aircraft in level flight or on a set course. Automatic pilots can be directed by the pilot, or they may be coupled to a radio navigation signal.

AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORT (METAR)—Observation of current surface weather reported in a standard international format.

AXES OF AN AIRCRAFT—Three imaginary lines that pass through an aircraft's center of gravity. The axes can be considered as imaginary axles around which the aircraft turns. The three axes pass through the center of gravity at 90° angles to each other. The axis from nose to tail is the longitudinal axis, the axis that passes from wingtip to wingtip is the lateral axis and the axis that passes vertically through the center of gravity is the vertical axis.

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR.A type of compressor used in a turbine engine in which the airflow through the compressor is essentially linear. An axial-flow compressor is made up of several stages of alternate rotors and stators. The compressor ratio is determined by the decrease in area of the succeeding stages.

BALANCE TAB—An auxiliary control mounted on a primary control surface, which automatically moves in the direction opposite the primary control to provide an aerodynamic assist in the movement of the control. Sometimes referred to as a servo tab.

BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT (GAMA)—Basic empty weight includes the standard empty weight plus optional and special equipment that has been installed.

BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE—A principle that explains how the pressure of a moving fluid varies with its speed of motion. An increase in the speed of movement causes a decrease in the fluid's pressure.

BIPLANES—Airplanes with two sets of wings.

BYPASS RATIO—The ratio of the mass airflow in pounds per second through the fan section of a turbofan engine to the mass airflow that passes through the gas generator portion of the engine.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : ALTIMETER - ATTITUDE INDICATOR

ALTIMETER—A flight instrument that indicates altitude by sensing pressure changes.

ALTITUDE ENGINE—A reciprocating aircraft engine having a rated takeoff power that is predictable from sea level to an established higher altitude.

AMBIENT PRESSURE—The pressure in the area immediately surrounding the aircraft.

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE—The temperature in the area immediately surrounding the aircraft.

ANEROID—A sealed flexible container that expands or contracts in relation to the surrounding air pressure. It is used in an altimeter or a barometer to measure the pressure of the air.

ANGLE OF ATTACK—The acute angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind. It is important in the production of lift.

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE—The angle formed by the chord line of the wing and a line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane.

ANHEDRAL—A downward slant from root to tip of an aircraft's wing or horizontal tail surface.

ANNUAL INSPECTION—A complete inspection of an aircraft and engine, required by the Code of Federal Regulations, to be accomplished every 12 calendar months on all certificated aircraft. Only an A&P technician holding an Inspection Authorization can conduct an annual inspection.

ANTISERVO TAB—An adjustable tab attached to the trailing edge of a stabilator that moves in the same direction as the primary control. It is used to make the stabilator less sensitive.

AREA FORECAST (FA)—A report that gives a picture of clouds, general weather conditions, and visual meteorological conditions (VMC) expected over a large area encompassing several states.

AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)—A system that provides enhanced navigational capability to the pilot. RNAV equipment can compute the airplane position, actual track and groundspeed and then provide meaningful information relative to a route of flight selected by the pilot. Typical equipment will provide the pilot with distance, time, bearing and crosstrack error relative to the selected "TO" or "active" waypoint and the selected route. Several distinctly different navigational systems with different navigational performance characteristics are capable of providing area navigational functions. Present day RNAV includes INS, LORAN, VOR/DME, and GPS systems.

ARM—The horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the center of gravity of an item. The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum, and minus (-) if measured forward of the datum.

ASPECT RATIO—Span of a wing divided by its average chord.

ASYMMETRIC THRUST—Also known as P-factor. A tendency for an aircraft to yaw to the left due to the descending propeller blade on the right producing more thrust than the ascending blade on the left. This occurs when the aircraft's longitudinal axis is in a climbing attitude in relation to the relative wind. The Pfactor would be to the right if the aircraft had a counterclockwise rotating propeller.

ATTITUDE—A personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a given manner that can, nevertheless, be changed or modified through training as sort of a mental shortcut to decision making.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR — An instrument that uses an artificial horizon and miniature airplane to depict the position of the airplane in relation to the true horizon. The attitude indicator senses roll as well as pitch, which is the up and down movement of the airplane's nose.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY : AILERONS - ALERT AREAS

AILERONS—Primary flight control surfaces mounted on the trailing edge of an airplane wing, near the tip. Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis.

AIRCRAFT — A device that is used, or intended to be used, for flight.

AIRCRAFT ALTITUDE—The actual height above sea level at which the aircraft is flying.

AIRFOIL—Any surface, such as a wing, propeller, rudder, or even a trim tab, which provides aerodynamic force when it interacts with a moving stream of air.

AIR MASS—An extensive body of air having fairly uniform properties of temperature and moisture.

AIRMET—In-flight weather advisory concerning moderate icing, moderate turbulence, sustained winds of 30 knots or more at the surface, and widespread areas of ceilings less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility less than 3 miles.

AIRPLANE—An engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of air against its wings.

AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL (AFM)—A document developed by the airplane manufacturer and approved by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). It is specific to a particular make and model airplane by serial number and it contains operating procedures and limitations.

AIRPLANE OWNER/INFORMATION MANUAL — A document developed by the airplane manufacturer containing general information about the make and model of an airplane. The airplane owner's manual is not FAA approved and is not specific to a particular serial numbered airplane. This manual is not kept current, and therefore cannot be substituted for the AFM/POH.

AIRPORT ADVISORY AREA—An area within 10 statute miles (SM) of an airport where a control tower is not operating, but where a flight service station (FSS) is located. At these locations, the FSS provides advisory service to arriving and departing aircraft.

AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY — A publication designed primarily as a pilot's operational manual containing all airports, seaplane bases, and heliports open to the public including communications data, navigational facilities, and certain special notices and procedures. This publication is issued in seven volumes according to geographical area.

AIRSPEED—Rate of the aircraft's progress through the air.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR — An instrument that is a sensitive, differential pressure gauge which measures and shows promptly the difference between pitot or impact pressure, and static pressure, the undisturbed atmospheric pressure at level flight.

AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATE — A certificate issued by the FAA to all aircraft that have been proven to meet the minimum standards set down by the Code of Federal Regulations.

AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVE—A regulatory notice sent out by the FAA to the registered owner of an aircraft informing the owner of a condition that prevents the aircraft from continuing to meet its conditions for airworthiness. Airworthiness Directives (AD notes) are to be complied with within the required time limit, and the fact of compliance, the date of compliance, and the method of compliance are recorded in the aircraft's maintenance records.

ALERT AREAS—Areas depicted on aeronautical charts to advise pilots that a high volume of pilot training or unusual aerial activity is taking place.

AERONAUTICAL GLOSSARY

100-HOUR INSPECTION — An inspection, identical in scope to an annual inspection. Conducted every 100 hours of flight on aircraft of under 12,500 pounds that are used to carry passengers for hire.

ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE—The vertical distance of an airplane above the terrain, or above ground level (AGL).

ACCELERATION—Force involved in overcoming inertia, and which may be defined as a change in velocity per unit of time.

ACCELERATION ERROR — Fluctuation of the magnetic compass during acceleration. In the Northern Hemisphere, the compass swings toward the north during acceleration.

ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE — The distance required to accelerate to V1 with all engines at takeoff power, experience an engine failure at V1 and continue the takeoff on the remaining engine(s). The runway required include the distance required to climb to 35 feet by which time V2 speed must be attained.

ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE — The distance required to accelerate to V1 with all engines at takeoff power, experience an engine failure at V1, and abort the takeoff and bring the airplane to a stop using braking action only (use of thrust reversing is not considered).

ADF— See AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER.

ADIABATIC COOLING — A process of cooling the air through expansion. For example, as air moves up slope it expands with the reduction of atmospheric pressure and cools as it expands.

ADIABATIC HEATING — A process of heating dry air through compression. For example, as air moves down a slope it is compressed, which results in an increase in temperature.

ADJUSTABLE-PITCH PROPELLER—A propeller with blades whose pitch can be adjusted on the ground with the engine not running, but which cannot be adjusted in flight. Also referred to as a ground adjustable propeller. Sometimes also used to refer to constant-speed propellers that are adjustable in flight.

ADJUSTABLE STABILIZER—A stabilizer that can be adjusted in flight to trim the airplane, thereby allowing the airplane to fly hands-off at any given airspeed.

ADVECTION FOG—Fog resulting from the movement of warm, humid air over a cold surface.

ADVERSE YAW—A condition of flight in which the nose of an airplane tends to yaw toward the outside of the turn. This is caused by the higher induced drag on the outside wing, which is also producing more lift. Induced drag is a by-product of the lift associated with the outside wing.

AERODYNAMICS—The science of the action of air on an object, and with the motion of air on other gases. Aerodynamics deals with the production of lift by the aircraft, the relative wind, and the atmosphere.

AERONAUTICAL CHART — A map used in air navigation containing all or part of the following: topographic features, hazards and obstructions, navigation aids, navigation routes, designated airspace, and airports.

AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING (ADM)—A systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

AGONIC LINE—Line along which the variation between true and magnetic values is zero.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS AND OPERATIONAL PITFALLS

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Situational awareness is the accurate perception of the operational and environmental factors that affect the airplane, pilot, and passengers during a specific period of time. Maintaining situational awareness requires an understanding of the relative significance of these factors and their future impact on the flight. When situational aware, the pilot has an overview of the total operation and is not fixated on one perceived significant factor.

Some of the elements inside the airplane to be considered are the status of airplane systems, and also the pilot and passengers. In addition, an awareness of the environmental conditions of the flight, such as spatial orientation of the airplane, and its relationship to terrain, traffic, weather, and airspace must be maintained.

To maintain situational awareness, all of the skills involved in aeronautical decision making are used. For example, an accurate perception of pilot fitness can be achieved through self-assessment and recognition of hazardous attitudes. A clear assessment of the status of navigation equipment can be obtained through workload management, and establishing a productive relationship with ATC can be accomplished by effective resource use.

OBSTACLES TO MAINTAINING SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Fatigue, stress, and work overload can cause a pilot to fixate on a single perceived important item rather than maintaining an overall awareness of the flight situation. A contributing factor in many accidents is a distraction that diverts the pilot's attention from monitoring the instruments or scanning outside the airplane. Many cockpit distractions begin as a minor problem, such as a gauge that is not reading correctly, but result in accidents as the pilot diverts attention to the perceived problem and neglects to properly control the airplane.

Complacency presents another obstacle to maintaining situational awareness. When activities become routine, there is a tendency to relax and not put as much effort into performance. Like fatigue, complacency reduces a pilot's effectiveness in the cockpit. However, complacency is harder to recognize than fatigue, since everything is perceived to be progressing smoothly. For example, a pilot has not bothered to calculate the CG of the airplane because it has never been a problem. Without the pilot realizing it, a passenger loads a heavy piece of equipment in the nose baggage compartment. The pilot notices severe nose heaviness during climb-out after takeoff, and find it necessary to use full nose-up trim to maintain level flight.

As the pilot flares for landing, the elevator reaches the stop without raising the nose enough, and the nose-first landing results in loss of the nose gear and extensive damage to the airplane.

OPERATIONAL PITFALLS
There are a number of classic behavioral traps into which pilots have been known to fall. Pilots, particularly those with considerable experience, as a rule, always try to complete a flight as planned please passengers, and meet schedules. The basic drive to meet or exceed goals can have an adverse effect on safety, and can impose an unrealistic assessment of piloting skills under stressful conditions. These tendencies ultimately may bring about practices that are dangerous and often illegal, and may lead to a mishap. A pilot will develop awareness and learn to avoid many of these operational pitfalls through effective ADM training.

WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT

Effective workload management ensures that essential operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. As experience is gained, a pilot learns to recognize future workload requirements and can prepare for high workload periods during times of low workload. Reviewing the appropriate chart and setting radio frequencies well in advance of when they are needed helps reduce workload as the flight nears the airport. In addition, a pilot should listen to ATIS, ASOS, or AWOS, if available, and then monitor the tower frequency or CTAF to get a good idea of what traffic conditions to expect. Checklists should be performed well in advance so there is time to focus on traffic and ATC instructions. These procedures are especially important prior to entering a high-density traffic area, such as Class B airspace.

To manage workload, items should be prioritized. During any situation, and especially in an emergency, remember the phrase "aviate, navigate, and communicate." This means that the first thing the pilot should do is to make sure the airplane is under control. Then begin flying to an acceptable landing area. Only after the first two items are assured should the pilot try to communicate with anyone.

Another important part of managing workload is recognizing a work overload situation. The first effect of high workload is that the pilot begins to work faster. As workload increases, attention cannot be devoted to several tasks at one time, and the pilot may begin to focus on one item. When a pilot becomes task saturated, there is no awareness of inputs from various sources, so decisions may be made on incomplete information, and the possibility of error increases.

When becoming overloaded, stop, think, slow down, and prioritize. It is important to understand options that may be available to decrease workload. For example, tasks such as locating an item on a chart or setting a radio frequency may be delegated to another pilot or passenger; an autopilot, if available, may be used; or ATC may be enlisted to provide assistance.

USE OF RESOURCES

To make informed decisions during flight operations, a pilot must become aware of the resources found both inside and outside the cockpit. Since useful tools and sources of information may not always be readily apparent, learning to recognize these resources is an essential part of ADM training. Resources must not only be identified, but a pilot must develop the skills to evaluate whether there is time to use a particular resource and the impact that its use will have upon the safety of flight. For example, the assistance of air traffic control (ATC) may be very useful if a pilot becomes lost. However, in an emergency situation when action needs be taken quickly, time may not be available to contact ATC immediately.

INTERNAL RESOURCES
Internal resources are found in the cockpit during flight. Since some of the most valuable internal resources are ingenuity, knowledge, and skill, a pilot can expand cockpit resources immensely by improving these capabilities. This can be accomplished by frequently reviewing flight information publications, such as the CFRs and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), as well as by pursuing additional training.

A thorough understanding of all the equipment and systems in the airplane is necessary to fully utilize all resources. For example, advanced navigation and autopilot systems are valuable resources. However, if pilots do not fully understand how to use this equipment, or they rely on it so much that they become complacent, it can become a detriment to safe flight.

Checklists are essential cockpit resources for verifying that the airplane instruments and systems are checked, set, and operating properly, as well as ensuring that the proper procedures are performed if there is a system malfunction or in-flight emergency. In addition, the Airplane Flight Manual/Pilot's  Operating Handbook (AFM/POH), which is required to be carried on board the airplane, is essential for accurate flight planning and for resolving in-flight equipment malfunctions.

Other valuable cockpit resources include current aeronautical charts and publications, such as the Airport/Facility Directory.

Passengers can also be a valuable resource. Passengers can help watch for traffic and may be able to provide information in an irregular situation, especially if they are familiar with flying. A strange smell or sound may alert a passenger to a potential problem. Apilot in command should brief passengers before the flight to make sure that they are comfortable voicing any concerns.

EXTERNAL RESOURCES
Possibly the greatest external resources during flight are air traffic controllers and flight service specialists. ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. Flight service stations can provide updates on weather, answer questions about airport conditions, and may offer direction-finding assistance. The services provided by ATC can be invaluable in enabling a pilot to make informed in-flight decisions.

I'M SAFE CHECKLIST AND THE FIVE HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES

I'M SAFE CHECKLIST
Illness—Do I have any symptoms?
Medication—Have I been taking prescription or over-the-counter drugs?
Stress—Am I under psychological pressure from the job? Worried about financial matters, health problems, or family discord?
Fatigue—Am I tired and not adequately rested?
Eating—Am I adequately nourished?
Alcohol—Have I been drinking within 8 hours? Within 24 hours?

THE FIVE HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
1. Anti-Authority:
"Don't tell me."
This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone telling them what to do. In a sense, they are saying, "No one can tell me what to do." They may be resentful of having someone tell them what to do, or may regard rules, regulations, and procedures as silly or unnecessary. However, it is always your prerogative to question authority if you feel it is in error.

2. Impulsively:
"Do it quickly."
This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to do something, anything, immediately. They do not stop to think about what they are about to do; they do not select the best alternative, and they do the first thing that comes to mind.

3. Invulnerability:
"It won't happen to me."
Many people feel that accidents happen to others, but never to them. They know accidents can happen, and they know that anyone can be affected. They never really feel or believe that they will be personally involved. Pilots who think this way are more likely to take chances and increase risk.


4. Macho:
"I can do it."
Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone else are thinking, "I can do it –I'll show them." Pilots with this type of attitude will try to prove themselves by taking risks in order to impress others. While this pattern is thought to be a male characteristic, women are equally susceptible.

5. Resignation:
"What's the use?"
Pilots who think, "What's the use?" do not see themselves as being able to make a great deal of difference in what happens to them. When things go well, the pilot is apt to think that it is good luck. When things go badly, the pilot may feel that someone is out to get me, or attribute it to bad luck. The pilot will leave the action to others, for better or worse. Sometimes, such pilots will even go along with unreasonable requests just to be a "nice guy."